Kumuka Nokuwa Kwenyika Yezvokutengeserana

Chikamu 3: Kutengeserana Kwamakaro Kunoratidza Chimiro Chakwo Chechokwadi

ZANA RAMAKORE rechi 16 zvarakavamba, kutengeserana kweEurope kwakanga kuchidzora kuchamhembe neChinzwano cheHanse, sangano remitemo rokutengeserana roKuchamhembe kwamataundi eGermany; mumadokero neEngland neNetherlands; uye mumaodzanyemba neVenice.

Kwamazana amakore, Venice yaidzora zvikuru kushambadza zvinorunga zvokudya. Bvumirano dzakaitwa namaArabhu, uye gare gare namaOttoman eTurk, nomutoo unobudirira vakapfiga nzendo dzokundoshambadza dzokuMabvazuva kuvavengi vanobvira. Kana vamwe vaizodenha uku kuva nechiremera chose chokutengesa, vaitofanira kuwana nzendo itsva dzinoenda kuMabvazuva Ari Kure. Kutsvaka kwakavamba. Mumwe muuyo wouku kutsvaka wakanga uri kuwanwa uye kukurirwa kwenyika dzeAmerica.

Mukati mama 1490 papa akapa Portugal neSpain kupfuurira kwoupapa nokuda kwenhimbe yokukurirwa kwenyika yakanga isingazivikanwi panguva iyeyo. Asi kwakanga kuchipfuura chaizvo zvitendero zvaisunda aya masimba maviri eKaturike. Purofesa Shepard Clough anotsinhira, kuti: “Nokukurumidza apo maruramiro amativi achangobva kuwanwa enyika akasimbiswa, vatauri vakaita chimbi chimbi youpengo yokuti vawane betsero yavangagona mukuwana kwavo.” Anowedzera, kuti: “Pakanga pane runenge ruchiva rwusiri rwomuzvarirwo muchimbi chimbi kupfurikidza narwo nhangaruvanze dzaikarira kupfuma. Heino yakanga iri tsinhiro inofadza mose muri muviri muvavariro dzinotsigira kuongorora uye papfungwa dzinokurira muMadokero enyika.” Ruchiva rwendarama navatendeuki rwakasunda vakuriri veSpain mukupamba kwavo Nyika Itsva.

Munguva ino, Netherlands yakanga ichikura mukuva simba rokutengeserana rinodzora, kombamiro iyo isina imwe yedzimwe kambani dzokutengeserana hurusa dzaigona kudzivisa. Kutaura idi, mukati mokufamba kwenguva kwezana ramakore rechi 17, kwakanga kuchioneka kuti England bedzi yakanga yakasimba zvakakwana kudenha Dutch. Makwikwi ezvemari akakudziridzika. Mukati mamakore 30, pakuzosvika muna 1618, Mangezi akapeta nakaviri ukuru hwengarava dzavo; pakazosvika pakati pezana ramakore rechi 17, ngarava dzavanamuzvinashavo dzamaDutch dzakanga dzichiwanziridza nekana ukuru hwengarava dzakabatanidzwa dzeItaly, Portugal, uye Spain.

Nzvimbo yokutengeserana yeEurope nokudaro yakachinja kubva muMediterranean kuenda kumahombekombe egungwa reAtlantic. Achiiidza kuti “chinjo yokutengeserana” uye “imwe yechinjo huru dzenzvimbo munhau,” Clough anotaura kuti kwakaparira “mugariro wakanaka wemari wakabvirisa utungamiriri hwezvamatongerwe enyika nepepuko hwokuMadokero kweEurope mupepuko yokuMadokero.”

Umambo Hwakavakirwa Pazvinopfuura Shuga Nezvinorunga Zvokudya Bedzi

Muna 1602 Dutch yakabatanidza chiverengero chakati kuti chamakambani okutengeserana aitungamirirwa navanamuzvinashavo vayo ndokuumba inonzi Dutch East India Company. Mumakumi amakore akatevera, kunze kwokuva nomwero worubudiriro rwokutengeserana muJapan neJava, yakadzinga maPutukezi muiyo zvino inonzi West Malaysia, Sri Lanka, uye Moluccas (Zvitsuwa zveZvinorunga Zvokudya). “Kufanana namaPutukezi namaSpania,” anodaro Clough, “[vaDutch] vaida kuzvichengetera vamene nomutoo wapoga betsero dzokutengeserana dzokuMadokero.” Uye hakusati kuchishamisa! Kutengeserana kwakanga kune mhindu zvikuru zvokuti pakazosvika zana ramakore rechi 17, Netherlands yakanga yava nyika yakapfuma kupinda dzose padzimbahwe muMadokero eEurope. Amsterdam yakava nzvimbo yemari neyokutengeserana yaMadokero enyika.—Ona bhokisi, peji 32.

Denmark neFrance dzakaumba makambani akafanana. Asi yokutanga, uye iyo yakatevera kuva ine simba kupinda dzose, yakaumbwa muna 1600, English East India Company. Yakatsiva yevaFrench namaPutukezi muIndia. Gare gare Mangezi akawana ukuru hwokutengeserana muChinawo.

Munguva ino, muWestern Hemisphere, Dutch West India Company yakanga ichiita bhizimisi mushuga, fodya, uye mvere. Uye Mangezi, pashure pokubatanidza Hudson’s Bay Company muCanada muna 1670, akanga akabatikana mukuedza kuwana mukoto wokuchamhembe kwakadziva kumadokero unoenda kuPacific sezvaaitengeserana nenyika dzakaganhurana neHudson Bay.

Mutori wenhau Peter Newman anoti parapatiko pakati peHudson’s Bay Company neiyo yavavengi vayo, North West Company, “yakanga iri kwikwidzano yebhizimisi nokuda kwokutengeserana uye mvere, asi yakakurumidza kutendeukira mukurondwa kwesimba nenzvimbo. . . . Mativi ose ari maviri akagadzikisa nhau dzawo muropa.” Vanyajambwa chaivo vaiva maIndia awo makambani ose ari maviri aitengeserana nawo. “Doro rakava chitsinhaniso chokutengeserana mvere,” anotaura kudaro, achiwedzera kuti uku “kutengeserana doro kwakashatsa mhuri ndokuparadza tsika yamaIndia.”a

Naizvozvo pakavapo noumambo huviri hune simba nepesvedzero, hwose huri huviri huchivakirwa pazvinopfuura bedzi shuga nezvinorunga zvokudya—uyewo pamusoro peropa! Kutengeserana kwamakaro kwakanga kuchiratidza chimiro chakwo chechokwadi. Sokureva kunoita The Columbia History of the World, kuti: “MaDutch naMangezi akafamba nomumakungwa enyika savamiriri nokuda kwamabhizimisi ezvokutengeserana . . . Nokuda kwaaya makambani vavariro yemhindu yakanga yakatanhamara.”—Kutsveyamiswa kwamashoko ndokwedu.

Mhindu Pakudyeredzera Vamwe

Kubvira muzana ramakore rechi 16 kusvikira kuzana ramakore rechi 18, gadziriro yemari inozivikanwa semitemo inodzora kutengeserana yakapesvedzera zvakasimba mufungo weEurope. The New Encyclopædia Britannica inotsanangura, kuti: “[Mitemo Inodzora Kutengeserana] yakaomerera pakuti kuwanwa kwepfuma, zvikurukuru pfuma iri muchimiro chendarama, kwakanga kuri kwoukoshi hukuru nokuda kwomuitiro worudzi. . . . Muitiro wokutengeserana wakarairwa nouzivi hwemitemo inodzora kutengeserana wakanga wakapfava nomutoo unowirirana: unobvumira kutumirwa kwezvinhu, unosakurudzira kuodhwa kwezvinhu, ndokutora chitsama chose chomuraudzo wezvinhu zvinotumirwa unovapo somuuyo mundarama.”

Kushandiswa kwouyu muitiro kazhinji kazhinji kwaiguma nokusaruramisira kwakakomba. Nyika dzinodzorwa nedzokumwe dzaidyeredzerwa sezvo matani endarama aibvutwa kuti abetsere nyika yokwavo. Kuchitaurwa nomutoo wakapfava, mitemo inodzora kutengeserana yakaratidzira chimiro chendangariro choudyire, makaro izvo nyika yokutengeserana yakachengeta kubvira pamavambo payo pamene, mudzimu uyo uchiripo.

Mitemo inodzora kutengeserana yakanga ine vatsoropodzi vayo, asati ari muduku wavo akanga ari murume weScotland anonzi Adam Smith. Muzivi wezvefambidzano akatanhamara uye nyanzvi yezvomugariro wemari wezvamatongerwe enyika, Smith akabudisa bhuku rezvomugariro wemari muna 1776 rinonzi An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Kunyange zvazvo aishora mitemo inodzora kutengeserana, Smith haana kurambidza kurongwa kwemhindu sokunosundwa noudyire. Mukusiana, akapokanidza kuti vanhu vari kutungamirirwa no“ruoko rusingaoneki” runovasunda kupinda mumakwikwi emari mukuronda kwoudyire kwomunhu mumwe nomumwe; asi udyire hwakafanana ihwohwo, iye akapokanidza, hunogona kubetsera nzanga yose zvayo.

Smith akarumbidza rondedzero yelaissez-faire (muchiFrench: “kubvumira kuita”), pfungwa yokuti hurumende dzinofanira kupindira zvishoma sezvingabvira munhau dzemari dzavanhu vamwe navamwe. Nenzira iyeyo akaratidzira zvakajeka pfungwa youzvinapfuma yegamuchidzanwa.

Uzvinapfuma, gadziriro inokurira yanhasi uye, sokutaura kunoita vamwe, gadziriro yemari inobudirira zvikurusa, inoratidzirwa nohuridzi huri hwoga hwepfuma, hune shambadzirano yakasununguka pakati pavanhu vamwe navamwe kana kuti makambani anokwikwidzana nokuda kwemhindu. Nhau yazvino uno youzvinapfuma yakavamba muzana ramakore rechi 16 mumataundi apakati neokuchamhembe kweItaly, asi mavambo ayo anotangira shure kure zvikuru. Purofesa Emeritus of History Elias J. Bickerman anotsanangura kuti “kushandiswa kwomugariro wemari shoko redu ‘uzvinapfuma,’ [muchiNgezi, ‘capital’] rinobva mushoko rechiRatini rokuti caput, kureva kuti ‘musoro,’ rinotangira kushoko reBhabhironi iro rinorevawo kuti ‘musoro’ uye rine revo imwe cheteyo yomugariro wemari.”

Kutengeserana kunozivisa chimiro chakwo chechokwadi mukuronda kwoudyire hwomunhu mumwe nomumwe kana kuti hworudzi. Somuenzaniso, hakuna kuderera pakudzvinyirira zvokwadi. Rinodaro The Collins Atlas of World History: “Mutari wemepu avewo ari mukumbaniri, uye panhambo nenhambo anodzorwa nomutoo wokusazvipira matandi okutengeserana. Zviwanwa zvinozivisa manyuko asingatauriki epfuma. Ko muiti wemepu angabvumidzwa kuzivisa aya mashoko kunyika here? Haafaniri kutosva hake avanzira vakwikwidzani vanokarirwa here? . . . Muzana ramakore regumi namanomwe, Dutch East India Company haina kubudisa magwaro aigona kupa vakwikwidzani vayo mashoko.”

Kutengeserana kwakaita zvakaipisisa zvikuru. Kubvira muzana ramakore rechi 17 kusvikira kune rechi 19, rakaita bhizimisi nokuda kwokutengesera vatema vanokarakadzwa kuva mamirioni gumi muuranda, vane zviuru zvavo vakafira munzira vachienda kunyika dzeAmerica. Bhuku rinonzi Roots, rakanyorwa naAlex Haley, uye neratidziro yaro yeterevhizheni ya 1977, rakaratidzira mufananidzo wakajeka weiyi ngwavaira yakashata.

Kuvaka Nezviitwa—Zvaizoshandiswa Sei?

Kubvira pakuvamba kwenhau yomunhu, vanhu vasina kukwana vakadzidza kupfurikidza nokuedza nokukanganisa. Kwete newadzanyuro youmwari, asi kupfurikidza nokunzvera kunonetesa kana kuti zvimwe kupfurikidza netsaona, vakawana zvokwadi dzehwaro dzesayenzi, dzakashandiswa nezviitwa zvitsva. Muna 1750, Great Britain zvayakatanga kubva mumugariro wemari wekugovera kwakaringana nyika kuenda kuno uyo unodzorwa nenzvimbo dzamabasa okugadzirwa kwezvinhu uye kushandiswa kwemichina, zvimwe zveizvi zviitwa—samabhuroko okuvakisa—zvaiwanika nokuda kwokushandiswa mukuvaka nyika itsva.

Muchina unofambiswa nemhepo unokweva mvura, wakazivikanwa muIran neAfghanistan kare kare somuzana ramakore rechitanhatu nerechinomwe N.V., wakagadzirira nzira nokuda kwokuwanwa nokukudziridzika kwamamwe manyuko esimba. Asi kutengeserana kwamakaro kwaizova kunodisa kurega mhindu yokunyanyisa nokuda kwokuva nechokwadi chokuti aya manyuko aizova akakotsekana, asitongorina kushatiswa kwemhepo, uye anovimbika here? Kana kuti kwaizobetsera njodzi dzesimba—zvimwe kunyange kudziparira—nokuda kwemhindu yomunhu oga here?

Unga, hwakaitwa muChina muzana ramakore rechigumi, hwakanga huri betsero nokuda kwokuchera migodhi nebasa rokuvaka. Asi kutengeserana kwamakaro kwaizova noushingi hwokurega kuhushandisa kuita zvombo kupfumisa vatengesi vezvombo pakurashikirwa kwoupenyu hwavanhu here?

Cast iron, zvimwe yaiwanika muChina kare somuzana ramakore rechitanhatu N.V., yakanga iri simbi yokutanga iyo nyika yazvino uno yaizovakirwa pairi. Asika kutengeserana kwamakaro kwaizodisa kutapudza mhindu yakwo kuti idzivise kushatiswa kwemhepo, tsaona, uye kuminyana uko zera renzvimbo dzamabasa okugadzirwa kwezvinhu raizounza here?

Nguva yaizozivisa. Zvisinei, izvi nezvimwe zviitwa zvakatemerwa kuti zvibetsere kuparira chinjo yenyika iyowo, yaizobetsera kusakisa chimwe chinhu nyika isina kutongoona nakare kose. Rava muchinyorwa chedu chinotevera: “Chinjo Mumabasa Okugadzirwa Kwezvinhu—Yatungamirira Kuchii?”

[Mashoko Omuzasi]

[Bhokisi riri papeji 32]

Bhizimisi Rokubhanga Mari

P.N.V.: Matembere ekare avaBhabhironi namaGiriki aichengeta mari yavaronzi nokuda kwekotsekano; sezvo munhu ari wose aisada mari yake panguva imwe cheteyo, imwe yacho yaigona kubwerekwa navamwe.

Mazera Apakati: Kubhanga mari kwazvino uno kunovamba, kwakatangwa navanamuzvinashavo veItaly avo vaishandisa vafundisi vanofambira savamiriri kuti vatumire tsamba dzechikwereti munyika imwe neimwe; muEngland vapfuri vezvinhu zvendarama vakavamba kukweretesa nokuda kwemhindu zvitsama zvinoronzeswa kwavari nokuda kwekotsekano.

1408: Sangano iro vamwe vanoidza kuti nhangaruvanze yamabhangi azvino uno rakatangwa muGenoa, Italy, richiteverwa naakafanana muVenice (1587) uye Amsterdam (1609). Mumwe wezvenhau anotaura kuti “mabasa anobudirira aiitwa neBank of Amsterdam aipa mugove wavo pakuita Amsterdam nzvimbo yemari yenyika.”

1661: Bank of Stockholm, bazu reBank of Amsterdam, rakavamba kubudisa mari yepepa yebhangi (vimbiso dzinoitwa nebhangi dzokuripira mutakuri), muitiro wakavandudzwa naMangezi gare gare.

1670: Nzvimbo inobhandarirwa macheki yokutanga, yakazarurwa muLondon, yakanga iri nzvimbo yokugadzikisa zvikumbiro zvinogoveranwa uye zvikwereti; mavambo echeki yazvino uno, uyewo mune iri gore, yakabvumira mubhengi kuchinjira marisiti emari yakaronzeswa kune rimwe bhangi kana kuti rutivi rwemari yasara kuna vamwe vanhu vapi navapi.

1694: Kutangwa kweBank of England, bhangi rakava rakatanhamara rinobudisa mari yepepa (muvambi wemari yepepa).

1944: Kuvambwa kweInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development, rakanziwo World Bank, chimiriro chinokwanisa chinosanowirirana neChinzwano chaMarudzi uye chakarongedzererwa kupa betsero yemari kunyika dziri mitezo nokuda kwamabasa okuvakazve nokuvandudza.

1946: International Monetary Fund yakagadzwa kuti i“simudzire batira pamwe yemari, kutsiga kwemari, futunuko yokutengeserana; kugadzikisa zvinetso zvokuripirwa kwomusiano wemari yasara.”—The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia.

1989: Delors Plan yakakarakadza kuti European Community igamuchire mari yavose ndokuumba European Central Bank mukati mama 1990.

1991: Kuzarurwa kweEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development, chimiriro chakaumbwa muna 1990 namarudzi anopfuura 40 kuti chigovere betsero yemari mukudzorera migariro yemari yakaneteswa yeEastern Europe.